tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-42374048203008141792024-03-19T04:25:32.207-07:00EKONOMI HINDUAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15118847960078812050noreply@blogger.comBlogger5125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4237404820300814179.post-23791200690133516122012-07-31T20:51:00.001-07:002012-07-31T20:53:45.446-07:00NEGARA KERTAGAMA DIRAGUKAN ?<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">Menurut </span><i style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">Pustaka Rajyarajya i Bhumi Nusantara</i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">, Lembu Tal atau Dyah Singamurti adalah putri dari </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahisa_Campaka" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Mahisa Campaka">Mahisa Campaka</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">, putra </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahisa_Wonga_Teleng" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Mahisa Wonga Teleng">Mahisa Wonga Teleng</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">, putra </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Arok" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Ken Arok">Ken Arok</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">, pendiri</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Singhasari" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Kerajaan Singhasari">Kerajaan Singhasari</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">Lembu Tal menikah dengan </span><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">Rakeyan Jayadarma</b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">, putra Prabu Guru Darmasiksa raja</span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Sunda-Galuh" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Kerajaan Sunda-Galuh">Kerajaan Sunda-Galuh</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;"> yang memerintah tahun 1175-1297. Dari perkawinan itu lahir</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">Rakeyan Jayadarma menjadi </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putra_mahkota" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Putra mahkota">putra mahkota</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;"> yang berkedudukan di Pakuan. Akan tetapi ia meninggal dunia karena diracun oleh musuh. Sepeninggal suaminya, Dyah Lembu Tal membawa </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;"> pergi dari Pakuan. Keduanya kemudian menetap di </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singhasari" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">, negeri kelahiran Lembu Tal.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">Dengan demikian, naskah di atas menunjukkan kalau </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;"> memiliki hubungan darah dengan keluarga </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Sunda-Galuh" style="background-color: white; color: #336699; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-decoration: none;" title="Kerajaan Sunda-Galuh">Kerajaan Sunda-Galuh</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;"><br /></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">(Sumber : Wikilopedia Indonesia )</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;"><br /></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">Kalau benar adanya, berita yang ditulis dalam Lontar tersebut, maka Negara kertagama tak punya kekuatan apapun menolak keberadaan tokoh Sang Rama Wijaya, pendiri Kerajaan Majapahit. Alur cerita dalam Negara kertagama pada bagian awal, yang mengisahkan Sang Rama Wijaya ternyata dirubah atas permintaan Sang raja yang sakit hati dengan keluarga ayahnya di negeri Pakuan, yang mengusir ibunya, Diah Singamurti sepeninggal ayahndanya Putra Mahkota Pakuan Rakeyan Jayadarma yang meninggal diracun akibat perebutan kekuasaan dengan saudaranya. </span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;"><br /></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;">Polemik Pakuan, intrik politik, perebuatan kekuasaan dan fitnah bagi Diah Lembu Tal / Diah Singamurti menjadi catatan kelam yang diwariskan pada Sang Putra yaitu Wijaya. Untuk itu : ikuti kisah perjalanan Diah Singamurti dalam cerita "PENDEKAR GUNUNG SALAK"</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px;"><br /></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15118847960078812050noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4237404820300814179.post-77582180563393394412012-07-29T20:00:00.000-07:002012-07-29T20:00:09.188-07:00DYAH LEMBU TAL ?<b>Dyah Lembu Tal</b> adalah nama orang tua <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a>, pendiri sekaligus raja pertama <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Majapahit" title="Kerajaan Majapahit">Kerajaan Majapahit</a>.<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Lembu_Tal_dalam_Pustaka_Rajyarajya">Lembu Tal dalam Pustaka Rajyarajya</span></h2>
Menurut <i>Pustaka Rajyarajya i Bhumi Nusantara</i>, Lembu Tal atau Dyah Singamurti adalah putri dari <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahisa_Campaka" title="Mahisa Campaka">Mahisa Campaka</a>, putra <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahisa_Wonga_Teleng" title="Mahisa Wonga Teleng">Mahisa Wonga Teleng</a>, putra <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Arok" title="Ken Arok">Ken Arok</a>, pendiri <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Singhasari" title="Kerajaan Singhasari">Kerajaan Singhasari</a>.<br />
Lembu Tal menikah dengan <b>Rakeyan Jayadarma</b>, putra Prabu Guru Darmasiksa raja <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Sunda-Galuh" title="Kerajaan Sunda-Galuh">Kerajaan Sunda-Galuh</a> yang memerintah tahun 1175-1297. Dari perkawinan itu lahir <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a>.<br />
Rakeyan Jayadarma menjadi <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putra_mahkota" title="Putra mahkota">putra mahkota</a>
yang berkedudukan di Pakuan. Akan tetapi ia meninggal dunia karena
diracun oleh musuh. Sepeninggal suaminya, Dyah Lembu Tal membawa <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a> pergi dari Pakuan. Keduanya kemudian menetap di <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a>, negeri kelahiran Lembu Tal.<br />
Dengan demikian, naskah di atas menunjukkan kalau <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a> memiliki hubungan darah dengan keluarga <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Sunda-Galuh" title="Kerajaan Sunda-Galuh">Kerajaan Sunda-Galuh</a>.<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Lembu_Tal_dalam_Nagarakretagama">Lembu Tal dalam Nagarakretagama</span></h2>
Lain halnya dengan <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagarakretagama" title="Nagarakretagama">Nagarakretagama</a></i>. Menurut naskah ini, Dyah Lembu Tal bukan seorang perempuan, melainkan seorang laki-laki. Disebutkan bahwa, Ayah <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a> bernama Lembu Tal, putra <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narasinghamurti" title="Narasinghamurti">Narasinghamurti</a>. Lembu Tal dikisahkan sebagai seorang perwira yuda yang gagah berani.<br />
Sementara itu, <i><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pararaton" title="Pararaton">Pararaton</a></i> yang juga berkisah tentang sejarah <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a> menyebut <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a> sebagai putra <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narasinghamurti" title="Narasinghamurti">Narasinghamurti</a>.<br />
Di antara naskah-naskah di atas, kiranya <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagarakretagama" title="Nagarakretagama">Nagarakretagama</a></i> yang paling dapat dipercaya, karena naskah ini ditulis tahun 1365, hanya berselang 56 tahun setelah kematian <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a>.<br />
Berita dalam <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagarakretagama" title="Nagarakretagama">Nagarakretagama</a></i> diperkuat oleh prasasti Balawi yang diterbitkan langsung oleh <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a> sendiri tahun 1305. Dalam prasasti itu <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Wijaya" title="Raden Wijaya">Raden Wijaya</a> mengaku sebagai anggota asli <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangsa_Rajasa" title="Wangsa Rajasa">Wangsa Rajasa</a>, yaitu dinasti yang menurut <i><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pararaton" title="Pararaton">Pararaton</a></i> didirikan oleh <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Arok" title="Ken Arok">Ken Arok</a>, penguasa pertama <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Singhasari" title="Kerajaan Singhasari">Kerajaan Singhasari</a>.Sumber Wikilopedia IndonesiaAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15118847960078812050noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4237404820300814179.post-60008466938912303862012-07-18T21:48:00.005-07:002012-07-18T21:48:20.973-07:00Demokrasi Versi Arthasastra<br />
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #8b1f17; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Demokrasi Dalam <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Arthasastra</em></strong></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #8b1f17; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></em></strong></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #8b1f17; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
Atas dasar pengertian, unsur-unsur, dan nilai-nilai demokrasi tersebut tulisan ini mencoba menelusuri unsur-unsur negara dalam buku <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Arthasastra</em> yang mengandung (benih) aspek atau nilai demokrasi dalam buku <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Arthasastra</em>. Untuk itu penelusuran diawali dari pengertian negara yang dedifinisikan oleh Kautilya. Kautilya merumuskan negara sebagai suatu kumpulan dari bermacam-macam masyarakat yang diwujudkan atas dasar prinsip-prinsip militer dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma.</em> Negara melambangkan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma</em> yang universal, yaitu suatu perlambang yang berisikan kebebasan individu (2003:82). Bagi Kautilya, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma </em>adalah konsep yang bersifat etis. Dalam konteks individu <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma</em> adalah <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">swadharma</em> atau kewajiban-kewajiban dan tanggung jawab; dalam konteks kemasyarakatan ia adalah solidaritas sosial; dalam konteks agama yang dipeluk masyarakat ia adalah realisasi diri yang disebut <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">moksa</em>; dan dalam konteks <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">vyavahara, charitra,</em> dan peraturan yang diundangkan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma</em> adalah keadilan (2003:154). Kautilya menganjurkan agar negara dibangun berdasarkan empat kaki hukum: <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dhramasastra</em> atau hukum suci, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">vyavahava</em> atau kesaksian, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">carittara</em> atau sejarah atau tradisi, dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sasana </em>atau maklumat raja-raja (2003:41).</div>
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Krisna Rao setelah mempelajari <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Arthasastra</em> berkesimpulan bahwa negara Kautilya adalah negara monisme yang ditetapkan berdasarkan sifat pluralistik. Kautilya membicarakan negara tidak dalam pengertian nasional karena negaranya tidak terbatas pada satu ras, bahasa, dan agama (2003:69). Dijelaskan pula bahwa negara merupakan lingkaran organisasi di mana emosi dan peradaban hidup rakyatnya bisa menyatu (2003:11l). Atas dasar itu Kautilya menjelaskan tujuh unsur yang disebut <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">saptangga</em> yang membangun konsep negaranya. Dari <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">saptangga</em> itu ditemukan nilai-nilai yang menjadi unsur-unsur demokrasi sebagai berikut.</div>
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(1) Negara menjamin kebebasan dalam berserikat atau berorganisasi. Di dalam negara ada serikat kerja, yaitu suatu kesatuan sosial tertentu yang dibangun atas tujuan bersama. Organisasi dibentuk atas dasar fungsi atau pandangan. Ada sejumlah istilah yang dipakai oleh Kautilya untuk menyatakan serikat kerja, yaitu <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sreni</em>:<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </em>kelompok perdamaian, pelayan militer, dan perdagangan;<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> kula</em>: dewan perwakilan atau oligarki pangeran-pangeran;<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> puga</em>: perserikatan bermacam-macam<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">kasta</em> yang tidak mempunyai jabatan;<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> ghana</em>: komfederasi gabungan sebuah perserikatan; dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sanggha</em>: perserikatan politik. Semua unsur itu masing-masing mewakili bermacam-macam kehidupan sosial Hindu. Organisasi serikat kerja ini berbadan hukum dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> wajib menghormati atau mengakuinya (2003:116).</div>
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(2) Kerjasama yang merdeka dan harmonis. Krisna Rao menjelaskan bahwa serikat pekerja dalam <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Arthasastra</em> sebagai organisasi yang demokratis (2003:35). Mengingat terdapat bukti kerjasama yang merdeka dalam semua bidang kehidupan.</div>
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(3) Ada jaminan perlindungan hidup bagi warga negara. Negara didirikan untuk perlindungan hidup, perlindungan hak milik dan untuk menjamin kesempatan-kesempatan untuk kemajuan sosial (2003:39). Ada departemen pemerintah pusat yang khusus terdiri atas para menteri dan komisaris disebut <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">pradeshtarah</em> untuk melindungi kepentingan para tukang dalam hubungannya dengan serikat kerjanya yang menjamin mereka dengan jaminan (2003:42).</div>
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(4) Kepala negara menyatakan diri sebagai perantara rakyat dan diberi kedudukan oleh hukum. <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Svami</em> yang ideal bagi Kautilya adalah seorang <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">rajarsi</em>, yaitu raja yang memiliki kualitas, antara lain kelahiran mulia, cerdas, arif, gagah berani, gesit yang memandang dirinya sebagai perantara rakyat dan diberikan kedudukan oleh hukum (2003:65).</div>
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(5) Kebijakan kepala negara ditetapkan melalui pertimbangan. Negara dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> ibarat badan dengan jiwanya. Setiap kebijakan dan tindakan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> harus ditetapkan melalui diskusi atau pertimbangan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">manriparisad.</em> Kabinet utama yang harus memutuskan kebijaksanaan ini terdiri atas mentri utama, panglima, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">purohita, </em>dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">yuvaraja.</em> Peranan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami </em>adalah <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharmapravartaka</em>, yaitu seorang kepala negara yang terus-menerus dalam pekerjaan yang benar demi negara. Tanggung jawabnya adalah mempertahankan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma</em> dan melindungi rakyatnya dengan keadilan. Kautilya berkata: “<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Svami </em>tidak akan pernah memberikan rakyatnya menyimpang dari kewajiban-kewajiban mereka yang telah ditetapkan. Sebab barang siapa yang mendukung kewajibannya sendiri, berpatokan pada kebiasaan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">arya</em>, mengikuti kewajiban-kewajiban kasta dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">varnasramadharma</em> akan memperoleh kebahagiaan di dunia ini dan di akhirat. (Krishna Rao, 2003:65). Dalam menjalankan kebijakan atau menyelesaikan konflik, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> menerapkan ajaran <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">niti</em> yang disebut <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sadguna</em>, yaitu<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> sama</em>, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">bheda, danda, upeksa, maya, </em>dan<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> indrajala</em> (2003:96). <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sama</em> atau rekonsiliasi adalah hal yang pertama-tama dilaksanakan. Apabila rekonsiliasi gagal barulah diterapkan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">guna</em> berikutnya. Ini artinya, Kautilya mendukung penyelesaian masalah secara damai.</div>
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(6) Suksesi kepemimpinan dilaksanakan secara terencana. Putra-putra <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em>, sebelum ia diangkat menjadi <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em>, terlebih dahulu ia harus melewati masa pendidikan, pengajaran dan pelatihan. Kurikulum pengajaran dan pelatihan tersebut berisi, antara lain (a) mereka dididik untuk menjadi orang yang disiplin, menguasai dirinya. Kautilya menyatakan, tujuan tertinggi dari ilmu pengetahuan adalah penguasaan atas indria (Teks:1.6.3); (b) terdapat berbagai cabang ilmu pengetahuan yang harus dipelajari oleh putra-putra <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami.</em> Akan tetapi yang paling pokok yang harus dikuasai oleh putra <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> adalah ilmu pemerintahan. Kemudian baru <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">trayiveda</em>, filsafat dan ekonomi. Yang menarik, calon <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> juga harus mempelajari <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">itihasa</em>; dan (c) pelatihan yang paling utama adalah pelatihan keprajuritan. Seorang putra <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami </em>sebelum menjadi <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami </em>terlebih dahulu harus diuji keberanian dan keterampilannya dalam berperang. Demikian juga dalam menangani berbagai persoalan kenegaraan. Putra <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> yang nantinya dipilih menjadi <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> adalah putranya yang paling berkualitas berdasarkan kasih-sayang kemanusiaan dan dicintai rakyat.</div>
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(7) Ada struktur pemerintahan dan pembagian tugas secara profesional. Sebagai kepala negara, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami </em>memiliki tiga tugas pokok, yaitu eksekutif, yudikatif, dan administratif. Dalam bidang eksekutif, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> bertugas melindungi negara; menjaga perdamaian; memberi bantuan kepada yang membutuhkan; mengorganisir rakyat dalam menanggulangi bencana alam, mengangkat menteri, pejabat sipil, dan panglima tentara; berkonsultasi dengan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">mantripasad</em> dan lembaga intelijen; mengonrol potensi keuangan, tentara; mengecek penerimaan dan pengeluaran negara; dan menetapkan kebijakan luar negeri dan pergerakan tentara. Berdasarkan penjabaran di atas jelas tampak bahwa ada distribusi kekuasaan. <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Svami</em> dalam menjalankan roda pemerintahan didampingi dan dibantu oleh para menteri, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">amatya.</em> Kautilya mengajarkan bahwa para menteri haruslah putra bangsa sendiri yang siap mengabdi sesuai dengan tugas yang dibebankan kepadanya.</div>
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(8) Kedudukan dan fungsi pejabat negara ditentukan berdasarkan kualitas moral dan keahliannya. Menteri-menteri adalah bagikan dua mata <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami,</em> karena itu mereka haruslah orang yang <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">arthacita,</em> bercita-cita luhur; <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">silavan</em>, bertabiat mulya; <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sampriya,</em> suka membahagiakan orang lain atau masyarakat; <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">prajna</em>, cerdas; <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dakhya</em>, kreatif; dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">vagmi,</em> berpengetahuan luas.</div>
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(9) Hukum diubah dan dibuat dengan memperhatikan sumber <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma</em> dan bersifat rasional. Dalam bidang yudikatif, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami </em>bukan sumber hukum, tetapi memiliki kekuasaan tertinggi atas pengontrolan para hakim. <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Svami</em> hanya bertugas mengadministrasikan institusi yang bertugas dalam membuat dan mengubah hukum. Kautilya menyatakan hukum haruslah rasional, berdasarkan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma,</em> sesuai dengan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">veda trayi, veda smrti</em>, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sista</em> atau kebiasaan arif orang suci dan tradisi (2003:104,105). Para hakim hendaknya menguasai <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharmasastra. </em>Interpretasi hukum hendaknya tidak memihak (2003:l05).</div>
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(10) Pemerintahan dijalankan berdasarkan hukum. Berdasarkan undang-undang administrasi, – <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharmasthiya,</em> hukum sipil<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </em>dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">kantaka sodhana,</em> <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">penal law</em> – <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami </em>mengkonsolidasi kerajaan dengan administrasi terpusat. Secara teknis pekerjaan administrasi ditangani oleh para pejabat birokrasi secara baik dan efisien (2002:l09). Di samping mengontrol kerja para pejabat negara, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> juga berkewajiban memberi inspirasi dan dorongan fundamental bagi aktivitas negara.</div>
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(11) Ada bantuan negara untuk kesejahtraan sosial. Perhatian terhadap kesejahtraan rakyat dalam bidang ekonomi adalah kewajiban <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em>, karena ia adalah ayah bagi rakyatnya. Bantuan negara yang diberikan adalah untuk membangkitkan industri-industri perorangan (2003:114). Bantuan hendaknya diberikan secara langsung dan cepat kepada perorangan atau golongan (2003:117). Negara membiayai rakyat yang tidak berpenghasilan (2003:116). Ini berarti kesejahtraan rakyat adalah kesejahtraan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em>. Kautilya menyatakan: “<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">rasa tidak puas warga negara merupakan malapetaka serius bagi negara</em>”.</div>
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(12) Besar pajak dan keuntungan perdagangan diatur berdasarkan kesepakatan. Kekayaan kerajaan Mauria sengat tergantung kepada penghasilan negara dan pajak. Ada undang-undang yang mengatur mengenai perpajakan. Undang-undang ini dibuat atas kesepakatan raja dan rakyat (2003:129). Contoh, pemasukan penghasilan dari tambang dikenai pajak 5% (2003:125). Pengambilan keuntungan dalam berdagang dikendalikan. Kautilya mengatakan bahwa pengawas perdagangan memastikan keuntungan 5% atas barang-barang lokal, dan 10% terhadap barang-barang (2003:43)</div>
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(13) Rakyat yang berkualitas dan bebas dari rasa malas. <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Janapada </em>adalah wilayah dan penduduk. Penduduk adalah warga negara yang dinamis dalam organisasinya dan mengaktifkan wilayahnya (2003:44). Kautilya mengatakan rakyat haruslah individu-individu yang berhati tulus dan penuh cintakasih, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">bhakti-suci</em>. Kreatif, giat bekerja untuk mendapatkan nafkah. Mau mengembangkan sumber daya yang terpendam dalam dirinya, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">kamasila karsakah</em>. Bebas dari sifat malas dan acuh-tak acuh, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">pramada</em>. Dikatakan pula bahwa individu bukan pribadi yang terisolir, tetapi bagian dari suatu tatanan sosial. Ada tiga kelas penduduk, yaitu negarawan, angkatan perang, dan para pekerja. Ketiga kelas penduduk itu masing masing mempunyai kewajiban yang telah ditetapkan dan dilarang untuk mencampur-adukkan kewajiban (2003:65). Kautilya mengatakan, “<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">baur dalam kewajiban dan rasa tidak puas warga negara dikatakan malapetaka serius bagi negara</em>”.</div>
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(14) Kesetaraan gender. Kautilya mempunyai pandangan yang sama dengan Manu tentang wanita, yaitu <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">yatra naryasya pujyonte tatra</em> <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ramante devatah</em>. Artinya, para dewa akan turun menjelajahi dunia bilamana para wanita dihormati. Kautilya menegaskan, ia yang menghormati kaum wanita berarti perduli terhadap peraturan pemerintah. Berzinah dengan gadis belum dewasa adalah tindakan kriminal. Memperkosa dan membunuh wanita mendapat hukuman yang berat. Kautilya menghargai perkawinan yang monogami. Hubungan antara suami dengan istrinya adalah hubungan yang saling mengasihi. Perkawinan merupakan suatu ikatan yang kooperatif terutama dalam kedekatan dan kebahagiaan. Suami-istri bukan saja bersikap sebagai teman, tetapi bersama-sama menanggung berat-ringannya pekerjaan. Suami harus memperlakukan istrinya dengan penuh hormat. Istri berhak mengklaim biaya hidup dan hasil yang diperoleh suaminya sesuai dengan proporsinya. Tidak dibenarkan di antara mereka berdua boleh melakukan kekezaman (2003:145-146).</div>
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<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Simpulan</strong></li>
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Kerajaan atau negara yang diidealkan oleh Kautilya adalah negara dinamis yang dibangun dengan poros <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma</em> untuk mencapai cita-cita <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">jagaddhita</em>: <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">artha</em> dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">kama</em>. Oleh karena itu negara haruslah dipimpin oleh seorang <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami, </em>yaitu seorang raja yang berkualitas <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">rsi.</em> Artinya, seorang pemimpin negara yang telah berhasil menjelmakan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma</em> sebagai kepribadiannya. Negara dan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami </em>ibarat tubuh dengan jiwanya. <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Svami</em> adalah seorang <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">grahastin</em>, seorang ayah bagi rakyatnya, <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma-svami</em>. Oleh sebab itu tujuan utamanya adalah mengusahakan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">artha</em> untuk mendorong (<em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">kama)</em> anak-anaknya untuk mendapatkan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma,</em> dan mengamalkan <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma-</em>nya. <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Dharma</em> dalam konteks kerajaan atau negara adalah hakikat demokrasi. Kautilya dengan tandas menyatakan bahwa <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dharma</em> dalam konteks individu adalah kewajiban-kewajiban dan tanggung jawab; dalam konteks sosial adalah solidaritas sosial; dalam konteks agama yang dipeluk rakyat adalah realisasi diri; dalam konteks peraturan yang diundangkan adalah <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">danda</em>. Jiwa demokrasi ini kemudian dikonkretkan dalam unsur-unsur negara yang disebut <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">astangga</em>.</div>
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Dengan demikian di dalam <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Arthasastra</em> tercermin unsur-unsur demokrasi, seperti dijelaskan dalam konsepsi demokrasi di atas, antara lain kerajaan atau negara mengakui keanekaan; rakyat bebas dalam berserikat atau berorganisasi; terdapat kerja sama yang merdeka dan harmonis; <em style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">svami</em> mengusahakan tegaknya keadilan; terdapat pemisahan dan pembagian kekuasaan; kekuasaan diperoleh berdasarkan hukum; pemilihan pejabat negara berdasarkan kualitas moral dan keahliannya; kebijakan pemerintah dijalankan berdasarkan hukum; suksesi kepemimpinan dilaksanakan secara terencana; ada kebebasan individu untuk mengembangkan bakat dan minat; menjamin perlindungan hak dan kesejahteraan sosial; besarnya pajak dan keuntungan perdagangan ditetapkan berdasarkan kesepakatan; dan penyelesaian perselisihan secara melembaga dengan mengutamakan perdamaian.</div>
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Oleh</div>
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Nanang Sutrisno, S.Ag, M.Si</div>
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<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #8b1f17; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 17px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /><br />Read more <a href="http://www.hukumhindu.or.id/demokrasi-dalam-arthasastra/" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #487f7e; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">http://www.hukumhindu.or.id/demokrasi-dalam-arthasastra/</a></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15118847960078812050noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4237404820300814179.post-88622541044512982742012-07-18T09:47:00.003-07:002012-07-18T09:48:03.386-07:00MANAJEMEN KEUANGAN<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pengertian manajemen</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">
keuangan adalah fungsi, tugas dan tanggung jawab seorang finansiil manager yang
harus mengambil keputusan dalam tiga fungsi utamanya yaitu:<br />
- Investment decision, aktivitas suatu organisasi dalam mengivestasikan dana
yang dimiliki ke dalam berbagai asset yang dibutuhkan secara efektif dan
efisien<br />
- Financing decision, segala aktivitas yang harus dilakukan oleh seorang
finansiil manager untuk memperoleh dana dariberbagai sumber dana dengan cara
yang mudah dan biaya yang murah<br />
- Dividend policy decision, fungsi seorang finansiil manager dalam melakukan
kebijakan untuk membagikan keuntungan yang dimiliki perusahaan dengan periode
tertentu<br />
<b>Tujuan manajemen</b> <b>keuangan</b> ini untuk memaksimalkan nilai
perusahaan, memaksimalkan laba dan memaksimalkan kesejahteraan pemegang saham
(tercermin dalam situasi harga saham di bursa efek). <b>peran manajemen
keuangan</b> meliputi tiga aspek yaitu opeasi perusahaan, manajer keuangan dan
pasar modal/pasar uang. arti penting manajemen keuangan banyak dihubungkan
dengan fungsi-fungsi dalam perusahaan, dihubungkan dengan kedudukan manager
keuangan dalam struktur organisasi, dengan karir, dihubungkan dengan kesempatan
kerja dan dengan balas jasa/fee.<br />
berikut ini adalah alat dan teknik dalam menganalisis manajemen keuangan:</span></div>
<ul type="disc"><ul type="circle"><ul type="square"><ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level4 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 144.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Finansiil ratio analysis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">, suatu teknik analisis yang
dilakukan dengan cara membandingkan variable keuangan sehingga dapat
diperoleh laporan informasi mengenai berbagai kondisi keuangan
perusahaan, tingkat aktivitas hasil dan tingkat pertumbuhan perusahaan</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level4 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 144.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Returns on investment</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> <b>analysis</b>, suatu
teknik analisis yang menggunakan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi
tingkat efektivitas dan efisiensi yang telah dicapai perusahaan dalam
suatu periode</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level4 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 144.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Funds statement analysis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">, suatu teknik analisis yang
memperlajari bagaimana kebijakan investasi dan financing yang telah
dilakukan perusahaan dalam periode kegiatan operasinya</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level4 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 144.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Break even analysis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">, suatu teknik analisis yang
memperlajari bagaimana pengaruh perubahan volume penjualan atau volume
produksi terhadap biaya tetap, biaya variable dan tingkat penjualan
yang pada akhirnya akan mempengaruhi rugi-laba perusahaan</span></li>
</ol>
</ul>
</ul>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Pengertian dan konsep dasar manajemen keuangan</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">, dalam pengertian dan konsepnya terbagi atas:</span></div>
<ul type="disc"><ul type="circle"><ul type="square">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 108.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Assets structure</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></li>
</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">perbandingan antara aktiva lancar dengan aktiva tetap.
assets structure mencerminkan kebijakan dari investment decision</span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Capital structure</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></li>
</ul>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">perbandingan antara sumber dana yang berasal dari hutang
jangka panjang dengan modal sendiri. capital structure mencerminkan kebijakan
financing decision</span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Finansiil structure</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">perbandingan antara hutang jangka
panjang dan hutang jangka pendek dengan modal sendiri yang dimiliki perusahaan<br />
<b>Keputusan investasi dihubungkan dengan fungsi manajemen keuangan:</b><br />
- Keputusan investasi tercermin pada sisi aktiva perusahaan, artinya mempengaruhi
struktur kekayaan perusahaan<br />
- keputusan pendanaan dan kebijakan dividen tercermin pada sisi pasiva
perusahaan<br />
Aturan struktur finansiil konservatif : 1) horizontal, aktiva tetap +
persediaan harus sepenuhnya dibiayai dengan modal sendiri. 2) vertikal,
perusahaan yang sehat harus dibangun dengan modal sendiri (dalam keadaan apapun
modal asing tidak boleh melebihi modal sendiri, perbandingan modal asing dengan
modal sendiri 1;1)<br />
<b>Konsep dasar tentang modal (capital)<br />
</b>menurut pandangan :</span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Lawyers, modal adalah sejumlah
saham yang disebutkan dalam anggaran dasar/akte pendirian perusahaan baik
jumlah lembarannya maupun nilai nominalnya, di depan notaris</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Accountant, modal adalah
owner's equity/net worth/modal sendiri/modal bersih secara matematis
(owner's equity = total assets - total debt</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Businessman, modal adalah
totalitas assets yang dimiliki dan dioperasikan dalam perusahaan</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Economics, modal adalah
kekayaan perusahaan baik yang berujud maupun pasiva dalam neraca</span></li>
</ol>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15118847960078812050noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4237404820300814179.post-86196075383709236312012-07-17T19:03:00.002-07:002012-07-17T19:05:14.141-07:007 Pilar Manajemen Menurut Hindu<br />
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<i><b>1.SWAMI (The Leader)</b></i></div>
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<b>Intelligence and spirit</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<b>Given to seeing elders</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<b>Truthful in speech</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<b>Not breaking promise</b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<b>Grateful</b></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i><b>2.
AMATYA – The minister (The manager)</b></i></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Desire
to learn</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Retention</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Through
understanding</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Intentness
on truth</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Able
to lead an army</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: arial, 'helvetica neue', helvetica, Trebuchet, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Sweet
in speech (Bridge betweenmanagement and staff / labour)</b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: arial, 'helvetica neue', helvetica, Trebuchet, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>(6.1.4-6)</b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: arial, 'helvetica neue', helvetica, Trebuchet, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: arial, 'helvetica neue', helvetica, Trebuchet, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><i>3. JANAPADA -The country (Your market)</i></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Strong position in center and frontiers</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Capable of sustaining in time of distress(Globalisation)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Easy to protect</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Providing excellent means of livelihood (cash flow)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Capable of bearing taxes and fines(6.1.8)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><i>4. DURGA – Fortified city (The headoffice)</i></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Charming (peaceful)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Beneficial to men (employees and self)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Staff devoted to work </b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b>Men loyal and Honest (6.1.8)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: arial, 'helvetica neue', helvetica, Trebuchet, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><i>5. KOSHA – The treasury</i></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">Acquired lawfully by ancestors and oneself (expand)</span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">One that can withstand calamity (Insurance)</span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">One Even when there is no income for longtime(6.1.10)</span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></span></div>
<div style="font-family: arial, 'helvetica neue', helvetica, Trebuchet, sans-serif; line-height: 100%;">
<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><i>6. DANDA – The army (your team)</i></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Obedient</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Not disappointed during marches</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Able to put up with troubles</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Has fought many battles (experience)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Skilled in war and weapons</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>No separate interest (no side commissions)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>(6.1.11)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><i>7. MITRA - The ally (friend / consultant)</i></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">Allied from days of father /grandfather </span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">Great</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">Constant</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">Under control (not spending)</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">Not having separateinterest</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">Able to mobilise quickly</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 16px;">(6.1.12)</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ff4, Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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